German Allies

In the 1930's, the independence of the smaller Eastern European countries came under threat from the emerging power of Germany and Russia. Germany had terratorial claims against her eastern neighbours and an interest in their economic resources, especially Romanian oil. Russia meanwhile wanted to recover Finland, the Baltic states, Eastern Poland and Romanian Bessarabia, all of which had been Tsarist provinces in 1914. Instead of joining together to support each other, the Eastern states were bitterly divided, especially regarding terratorial claims against one another. To gain favour over one another and to protect themselves against the larger powers, they began to side with either Germany or Russia.
Both the German and Russian governments pre-empted this and one of the main purposes of the Russo-German pact, was to divide Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. Russia claimed the Baltic states, Eastern Poland and Romanian Bessarabia, and engaged in the the Winter War in 1939 to wrestle substantial amounts of territory from the Fins.
The Germans signed the tripartite pact in 1940 with Romania, Slovakia, Hungary and Bulgaria. Finland remained uncommitted, but allowed German troops free passage across her borders. All these nations, with the exception of Bulgaria, would provide substantial forces to support the German invasion of Russia.

Romania

Historical Background

In April 1939, France and Britain had pledged to guarantee the independence of Romania. But similar negotiations with the Russians collapsed when Romania refused to allow the Red Army to cross its frontiers. When Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, Romania officially remained neutral. Following the assassination of Prime Minister Armand Calinescu in late September of that year, King Carol tried to maintain neutrality, but the surrender of France and the retreat of British forces from continental Europe, rendered meaningless the assurances that both countries had made to Romania.
In 1940, Romania lost territory in both the east and the west. In July, after issuing an ultimatum to Romania, Russian forces occupied Bessarabia, redesignating it the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. In August 1940, under the Second Vienna Award, Germany and Italy forced Romania to give half of Transylvania to Hungary. The Hungarians received a region referred to as Northern Transylvania, while Southern Transylvania remained under Romanian rule. In September, under the Treaty of Craiova, an area in the south of the country was also ceded, this time to Bulgaria.
These rapid territorial losses shattered the underpinnings of King Carol's power. In the immediate wake of the loss of Northern Transylvania, the Iron Guard, led by Horia Sima and later Marshal Ion Antonescu, united to form a National Legionary State government, which forced the abdication of King Carol in favor of his son Michael. King Carol went into exile and Romania began to lean strongly toward the Axis.
Once in power, the Iron Guard stiffened already harsh anti-Semitic legislation and in October 1940 began allowing German troops to enter the country. In November 1940, Romania joined the Axis Powers and on November the 27th 1940, more than 60 prominent former dignitaries or officials were executed in Jilava prison while awaiting trial.
The cohabitation between the Iron Guard and Antonescu was never an easy one and in January 1941, the Iron Guard attempted a coup. However, within four days, Antonescu had successfully suppressed the coup and the Iron Guard was forced out of the government.

Romanian forces on the Eastern Front

In an effort to find favor with Hitler and with the hope of regaining much of its lost territories, Romania offered substantial forces to the Axis cause in preparation for operation Barbarossa.
At the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, the Romanian Army provided nineteen front line infantry Divisions. These were the 1st -11th, 13th -15th, 18th -21st and the Guard Division. These Divisions, with supporting elements, formed three Armies, the 3rd, 4th and 11th. This was by far the largest force provided by any of the Axis nations and Romanian forces participated in many of the major actions that took place on the eastern front.
In 1941, the Romanian 3rd Army took part in the advance through the Ukraine, from the Dniester to the Dnepr and then on into the Crimea where it took part in the battle for the Perekop Isthmus. The 4th Army was involved in the capture of the fortress at Odessa. After the campaign of 1941, the infantry Divisions in Romania and Trans-Dnestra were fully reequipped and reorganized during the winter. The Divisions that were on the front line were only partially reorganized and had lower combat potential. In 1942 the 3rd Army continued to support the German advance into the Crimea and took part in the battles for the Kerch Peninsula and Sevastopol. Other elements of the 3rd Army carried out security operations in the German rear areas and occupied defensive positions in the Kharkov area helping to defeat the Russian offensive there in May. Later in the year during operation Blau, elements of the 3rd Army advanced through Rostov and then into the Kuban and the Caucasus.In late 1942, the 3rd and 4th Armies were caught up in fighting on the Don during operation Uranus, the Russian encirclement of Stalingrad. Whilst defending the flanks of the German 6th Army fighting in Stalingrad they suffered heavy losses as the huge Russian offensive smashed through first the 3rd Army to the north of the city and then the 4th Army to the south.
The battle of Stalingrad was a disaster for the Romanian Army. The losses in men and material were huge. Practically all the divisions were under strength and an immediate reorganization and reinforcement was necessary. Many units were disbanded and amalgamated with remnants of other Divisions to form new full strength Divisions.
As well as providing troops, Romania supplied Germany and the Axis armies with oil, grain, and industrial products. Consequently, by 1943 Romania had become a target of Allied aerial bombardment. Attacks were made against the oil fields of Ploiesti in August 1943 and Bucharest itself was subjected to intense bombardment in April 1944.
By 1944, the Romanian economy was in tatters. It was also clear that the tide of the war had turned against the Axis Powers and resentment against Germany was growing in Romania.
In May 1944, the Battle of Târgul Frumos was fought in Romania between the advancing Russians on one side and the defending Germans and Romanians on the other.
It was under these conditions that Russian forces crossed the Romanian border in late August 1944 and what followed became known as the Battle of Romania.
In August 1944, King Michael led a coup, with support from opposition politicians and the army, successfully deposing the Antonescu dictatorship. Despite offering a non-confrontational retreat of German forces to the German ambassador, Manfred von Killinger, the Germans tried to turn the situation around by military attacks. The Romanian 1st Army, the 2nd Army, which was in the process of being formed and the remnants of the 3rd and 4th Armies, were ordered by the king to defend Romania against any German attacks. The king then offered to put Romania's battered armies on the side of the Allies.
Due to the complexities of negotiations between Russia and Britain, the formal Allied recognition of the change of orientation did not come until mid September. During this time, Russian troops had begun moving into Romania, taking approximately 140,000 Romanian prisoners and acting in a hostile way towards the civilian population.
In October 1944, Winston Churchill proposed an agreement with Joseph Stalin on how to divide Eastern Europe into spheres of influence after the war. Russia was offered a 90% share of influence in Romania. The Romanian Army ended the war fighting along side the Russians against Germans. They fought in Transylvania, Hungary and Czechoslovakia and in May 1945, the Romanian 1st and 4th Armies took part in the Prague Offensive.

Romanian Force Organization

The Guard Division had the same structure as an infantry Division. However, selection for this elite unit was very strict, with all recruits requiring a good education, a very good physical condition and being subjected to more intensive training.
The organization of the infantry Division was similar to the German triangular model. It was comprised of three infantry Regiments, each of which were consisted of three Battalions, each Battalion of three Companies, each Company of three Platoons and each platoon of three Sections. Divisional support elements consisted of one partially motorized reconnaissance group, one AT Company equipped with six 47mm Schneider model 1936 guns, a pioneer Battalion and two artillery Regiments equipped with either the 105mm Schneider field gun model 1936 or the 150mm Skoda field howitzer model 1934. The majority of the transports were still horse-drawn.

Equipment

The main infantry weapon was the Czech ZB model 1924 rifle, a modified version of the German Mauser 98K and used the standard 7.92mm cartridge. Each infantry section also had a ZB model 1930 light machine-gun. In early 1941, this weapon began to be replaced by the Czech ZB-53 model 1937 machine-gun.

Hungary

Historical Background

Following the 1918 break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after the end of WWI, Hungary found itself demoralized and destroyed. In 1920, Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon, which saw it loose a good deal of its territory to the nations surrounding it. This treaty, although giving Hungary independence, also gave a good deal of territory to neighboring Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The treaty also mandated things such as the size of the standing army.
In an attempt to regain stability in the years preceding WWII, Hungary, under the leadership of Horthy, strived to find alliances that would benefit its attempts to regain lost territory. After unsuccessful attempts with Great Britain and France, in 1927 Hungary signed a treaty with its former enemy, Italy.
In the 1930's Hungarian Prime Minister Gyula, signed a trade agreement with Germany. As a result of this agreement, Hungary found itself on a better economic and political footing.
From 1938 to 1941, Hungary began to regain its lost territory, either through political means, or through limited military actions. In 1938 Hungary regained areas previously incorporated into the region of Slovakia and in March 1939 Hungarian forces occupied Czechoslovakian Ruthenia. Also in 1939, Hungary joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, along with Germany, Italy and Japan. When Germany invaded Poland in September of 1939, Hungary declared itself neutral, although it had been mobilizing its forces since 1938.
In 1940, Romania was forced by Germany to return Northern Transylvania to Hungary. Finally, in 1941, German and Italy attempted to bring Hungary into a Military alliance. To do this, they offered Hungary the return of more territory that had been taken in the 1920 Treaty of Trianon. In April 1941, Germany entered into Hungarian territory to prepare for the invasion of Yugoslavia. In so doing, it requested the aid of Hungary, who then mobilized the Hungarian 3rd Army.
The Germans initially had no desire for Hungarian participation in Barbarossa, which suited most of the Hungarian leadership. But the Germans, meeting more resistance than they anticipated, soon said that they would welcome any voluntary contribution made by the Hungarians. The Hungarian government made the gesture of breaking relations with the Russia and then following the bombing of the Hungarian city of Kosice, they formally declared war on the 27th of June, becoming a full Axis partner to Germany and Italy.

Hungarian forces on the Eastern Front

The Hungarians mobilized the Carpathian Group, which comprised the 8th Corps and the Gyorshadtest Mobile Corps. The 8th Corps consisted of the 1st Mountain and the 8th Border Guard Brigades as well as all of its corps troops. The Gyorshadtest Mobile Corps comprised the 1st and 2nd Motorized Infantry Brigades as well as the 1st Cavalry Brigade. The Carpathian Group began its attack on the 30th of June with attempts to clear the passes through the Carpathians. The defenders demolished many of the roads and bridges in the area, which slowed down the advance considerably. The Russians surprised the Hungarians with their skillful delaying tactics, but despite this they made no concerted effort to hold on to the area between the Carpathians and the Dneister River. The Hungarians reached the Dneister by the 6th of July, delayed more by supply problems than by the Russian defense.
Once they had reached the river, the units of 8th Corps were relegated to occupation duties. However, the Mobile Corps was placed under the command of Army Group South and continued on despite immense supply difficulties and numerous breakdowns. It breached the Stalin Line against light resistance during mid July and continued to advance as Russian resistance strengthened. By the end of July, the Corps logistical situation had become perilous and was in danger of out running its supply lines. Its commander requested a weeklong pause to recuperate, but the Germans ignored this.
Forced to continue its advance, it cooperated with the 1st Panzer Group to close the pocket near Uman in early August. Afterwards, it headed south to Nikolaev with the objective of cutting the Russian 9th Army's line of retreat in cooperation with the 48th Panzer Corps. Despite heavy Russian counter-attacks, the 2nd Motorized Infantry Brigade entered Nikolaev from the west as the 16th Panzer Division entered from the east.
The Corps finally got its well-deserved rest after the capture of Nikolaev, as it was placed in reserve at Krivoi Rog in late August. In early September the Corps was tasked with defending a 120-mile stretch of the Dnepr River from Dnepropetrovsk to Nikopol.
Nowhere were the Hungarians strong enough to do much more than deploy in widely dispersed strong points supplemented with a line of sentry posts. Russian forces were continually raiding across the river, usually in less than Battalion strength, and the Hungarians were hard-pressed to contain these raids. The Russians were particularly active around Zaporozhe Island and Nikopol. An attack on the 5th of September evicted the two battalions defending the island and attempts to recapture it were unsuccessful. It was obvious that the Hungarians had been given more than they could handle and either had to be reinforced or made responsible for a smaller sector. The 16th Panzer Division took over 1st Motorized Infantry Brigade's sector, which allowed it to move opposite Zaporozhe Island. This was only temporary as 16th Panzer was withdrawn on the 13th of September. On the 27th of September, the 4th Security Regiment arrived, allowing the severely weakened 1st Cavalry Brigade to be withdrawn and sent home on the 5th of October.
On the 11th of October, the group took part in the drive northeast from Dnepropetrovsk towards Izyum, reaching the Donets River at the end of the month. The Group took no further part in the campaign and returned to Hungary at the beginning of November.
Four security brigades replaced the group, with a fifth arriving later. These were formed from second and third-line reserves, using the headquarters of regular infantry brigades, but without their full compliment of support units. Each was at less than 70% strength, had no artillery at all and only a small number of machine-guns.
In the spring of 1942, the Hungarians bolstered axis forces on the eastern front by providing its 2nd Army, comprised of the 3rd, 4th and 7th Corps and formed from a total of one armoured and nine infantry Divisions.

Hungarian Force Organization

A light infantry Division had two infantry Regiments and a field artillery Regiment as well as a hussar Squadron and an AA Battery.
Each infantry Regiment had three infantry Battalions as well as a Company of 81mm mortars, an anti-tank Company with a mix of 37mm Pak 36, Belgian 47mm 36M guns and from 1942 onwards 50mm Pak 38 guns, a motorized machine gun Company, a pioneer Company and a battery of 80mm Skoda 5/8M gun field guns. Each rifle Battalion had three rifle Companies and a heavy weapons Company equipped with platoons of medium machine-guns, 81mm mortars and 47mm AT guns.
The field artillery Regiment had two Battalions, one with a Battery of German 76mm leIG 18 field guns and a Battery of German leFH 105mm howitzers and the other with four Batteries, two with 100mm Skoda Model 14M howitzers and two with 150mm Skoda 14/39 M howitzers.
The 1st Field Armored Division was comprised of the 30th Tank and the 1st Motorized Rifle Regiments.
The 30th Tank Regiment had two tank Battalions, each with one heavy Company equipped with eleven PzKfw IV's and two medium Companies equipped with twenty-six PzKfw 38(t).
The 1st Motorized Rifle Regiment consisted of three motorized rifle Battalions and a motorcycle Company. Each Battalion consisted of three rifle Companies, with Platoons of medium machine guns, 81mm mortars and 37mm AT guns attached for support. Also attached was the 1st Reconnaissance Battalion, equipped with a Company of Toldi I light tanks and a Company of Csaba armored cars.

Equipment

Infantry weapons consisted of the 8mm Huzagol 35M rifle and the 9mm 39M submachine-gun. The ancestor of the German MG34, the 30M served in the role of LMG and the Austro-Hungarian Schwarzlose 07/12 machine guns in the medium/heavy MG role.

Italy

Historical Background

Despite Mussolini's description of the German-Italian alliance as an 'Axis of Blood and Steel', he responded to the German invasion of France by declaring Italy neutral and a non-belligerent. However, In June 1940, as the French government fled, Mussolini felt the conflict would soon end and declared war on Britain and France.
Within a week of Italy's declaration of war, British and Italian forces had clashed in Libya. In September, Mussolini ordered the 10th Army in Libya, to mount an attack into Egypt. In December 1940 an allied force virtually destroyed the Italian army in North Africa and in February 1941 the Germans were forced to send the Africa Corps to assist the beleaguered Italians.
In October 1940, Italy launched an invasion of Greece from its colony of Albania. After an initial Italian offensive, the Greeks launched a counter-offensive and drove the Italians back into Albania. In April 1941, Germany invaded Yugoslavia and Greece and Italian forces took part in both operations.
Following the invasion of Russia in June 1941, Mussolini formed an Italian expeditionary force to provide support to the Germans.

Italian forces on the Eastern Front

The Italian Expeditionary Corps (CSIR) in Russia consisted of the 9th 'Pasubio', 52nd 'Torino' Semi-Motorized and the 3rd 'Celere' Light Infantry Divisions.
The CSIR began to arrive in Russia during late July 1941 and was initially subordinated to the 11th Army, attached to Army Group South. Moving eastwards across the Pruth River to the south of Mogilev and then onwards towards the Bug River at Pjervomaisk.
In mid August 1941, the CSIR was transferred to the 1st Panzer Group, taking part in the advance towards the Dnepr River at Dneprpetrovsk. In September it took part in the battle of Petrikovka. In October it took part in an attack against the bridgehead of Pavlograd and later the same month participated in the capture of Sofja and Stalino.
In November, elements of the CSIR occupied the cities of Rykovo, Nikitovka and Gorlovka. In December it was engaged in the battle of Chazepetovka.
In April 1942, the Italian Croat Legion arrived at the front and was attached to the 3rd 'Celere' Division. During the same month the CSIR occupied defensive positions between Kubyshevo and Debaltsevo, along the western bank of the Mius River to the south of Kharkov. In June 1942 it was subordinated to the 17th Army fighting in the Donets Basin. The CSIR was dissolved in July 1942 to form the newly established Italian 8th Army on the Eastern Front, the Armata Italiana in Russia (ARMIR).
Seven new Divisions were sent to Russia, increasing the Italian prescence to a total of ten Divisions. Four new infantry Divisions were sent, the 2nd 'Sforzesca', 3rd 'Ravenna', 5th 'Cosseria' and 156th 'Vicenza' Infantry Divisions. In addition to the infantry Divisions, three new mountain Divisions were also sent. These were the 2nd 'Tridentina', 3rd 'Julia' and 4th 'Cuneense' Alpini Divisions. These new Divisions were added to the 'Torino', 'Pasubio' and 'Celere' Divisions, forming the 8th Italian Army.
The ten Divisions were organized into three Corps. The 'Torino', 'Pasubio' and 'Celere' Divisions formed the 35th Army Corps, while the 'Sforzesca', 'Ravenna', 'Cosseria' and 'Vicenza' Divisions became the 2nd Army Corps and the 'Tridentina', 'Julia' and 'Cuneense' Divisions became the Mountain Corps. The 'Vicenza' Division was primarily utilized in the rear areas on security duties.
In addition to the Italian Divisions, the 8th Army included the 298th and 62nd German Divisions, a Croatian volunteer Legion and three Legions of 'Camicie Nere', Italian Blackshirt fascist volunteers.
In July 1942, the 8th Army advanced towards the right bank of the Don River, which it reached by the end of that month. In August, the Bersaglieri troops of the 3rd 'Celere' Division reduced the Russian bridgehead at Serafimovic, but later in the month, a counter attack from forces of the Stalingrad Front forced it to withdraw.
By late autumn 1942, the 8th Army was placed on the left flank of the German 6th Army, with positions stretching along the River Don for more than 250km, between the Hungarian 2nd Army in Kalmiskowa and the Romanian 3rd Army in Veshenskaia. The Italians threw up a thin screen along the river, no trench lines were dug nor effective defensive positions set up.
The situation for the Italian troops along the Don River remained stable until the Russians launched operation Little Saturn in December 1942. The aim of this operation was the annihilation of the Italian, Hungarian, Romanian, and German positions along the Don River.
On the 16th of December, the Russian 6th Army broke out of its bridgehead on the Don at West Mamon, and attacked the defences of the Italian 8th Army, with the main thrust directed against the Italian 6th Infantry Division. Once a breach had been made, elements of the army penetrated south and then southwest, breaking into the rear of the Italian 2nd Corps, with the 17th Tank Corps capturing Kantemirovka.
Further to the east, elements of the 1st Guards Army opened their attack, with the 44th Infantry Division also attacking the Italian 6th Infantry Division, while the 38th Infantry Division crossed the Don at Bogoutscher and attacked the Italian 8th Infantry Division. Further east still, the 153rd Infantry Division attacked the Italian 10th Infantry Division at Kasanskaia, while the 197th Infantry Division forced the Don further south and attacked the southern flank of the Italian 10th Infantry Division.
The Italian Divisions were quickly overwhelmed and by the 19th, were forced into a general retreat across the whole front. The Italian 35th Corps withdrew southwestwards towards Mankova, while the 29th Corps withdrew in the general direction of Millerovo and Likhaia. The fleeing Italian Divisions finally attempted to form a new defensive line along the Donets River between Likhaia and Vorochilovgrad, which they began to occupy at the end of December.
On the 14th of January 1943, after a short pause, the Russian 6th Army attacked the Alpini Divisions of the Mountain Corps. These divisions had been placed on the left flank of the Italian army and were still relatively unaffected by the battle. However, the Alpini's position turned critical after the collapse of the Italian center and the simultaneous collapse of the Hungarian forces to their left. The 'Julia' and 'Cuneense' Divisions were almost totally destroyed, while remnants of the 'Tridentina' Division and other withdrawing troops managed to escape the encirclement.
On the 26th of January 1943, after heavy struggles culminating in the desperate battle of Nikolajewka, the Alpini remnants breached the encirclement at Shebekino and reached new defensive positions to the west. The surviving remnants were no longer battle worthy and were evacuated to Italy.

Italian Force Organization

The Infantry Divisions were comprised of two infantry Regiments. Each Regiment consisted of three infantry Battalions, an infantry gun Company equipped with Obice da 75/18 modello 34, 75mm infantry guns, a mortar Platoon equipped with Model 35, 81mm mortars, an anti tank Company equipped with 47/32 Elefantino 47mm AT guns, a light artillery Battalion equipped with Cannone Da 75/18 Modello 37, 75mm guns and a medium howitzer Battery equipped with Cannone Da 105/28 105mm guns.

Equipment

The standard infantry weapon was the Mannlicher M91/38 bolt-action rifle. Originally introduced in 1892, it was 6.5mm in caliber and fed with a six round box magazine. The standard SMG was the Beretta model 1938A. It was 9mm in caliber and could be fitted with a ten, twenty, or forty round box magazine. The standard heavy machine gun was the Breda M37. It was 8mm in caliber and fed with a twenty round box magazine.

Finland

Historical Background

In 1809, Russia conquered Finland from Sweden during the Finnish War. Finland entered a personal union with the Russian Empire as a grand duchy with extensive autonomy. During the period of Russian rule the country generally prospered. However, in the early twentieth century Russia tightened its grip on Finland, causing wide-spread resentment. When revolution broke out in Russia in 1917, Finland declared independence. In 1918, the Finnish Civil War broke out between the generally right-wing government supporters and left-wing rebels. The war ended with the victory of the government forces, supported by the Germans, and the expulsion of Russian troops.
During the inter-war period, the relationship between Finland and Russia was tense. Some elements in Finland wanted to extend their borders to include the Russian controlled region of Karelia. On the Russian side, the proximity of the Finnish border to Leningrad caused worry amongst the Russian leadership.
In 1938, negotiations started between Finland and the Russia concerning the safety of Leningrad, however no agreement was reached. In 1939, Germany and the Russia signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and in a secret clause of the agreement, it was agreed that Finland would come under the Russian sphere of influence. In November 1939, the Russian government falsely accused the Finnish army of shelling of the village of Mainila, using the provacation as an excuse to attack Finland.

The Winter War

The Russian forces arrayed against Finland enjoyed supriority in both manpower and material over the Finnish army, including virtually complete air supremacy. However, despite this overwhelming superiority the Red Army fared badly against its lesser opponent. The Finnish army was fighting on their home ground in conditions with which they were very familiar and the high morale of Finnish troops, their flexible and creative strategies, difficult terrain and harsh the winter caused significant problems for the Red army.
The Russians were routed in several key battles and the war dragged on for months, as casualties mounted and the international prestige of the Russia suffered.
By March 1940, sheer exhaustion of forces led to both parties wishing to negotiate a peace treaty. The subsequent agreement, the Moscow Peace Treaty, saw Finland having to agree to significant territorial concessions.

The Interim peace

The period of peace following the Winter War was widely regarded as temporary even when peace was announced in March 1940. A period of frantic diplomatic efforts and rearmament followed. The Soviet Union kept up intense pressure on Finland, thereby hastening the Finnish efforts to improve the security of the country.
Following fruitless attempts to negotiate with Sweden and Great Britain saw Finland turn to Germany for military aid. As the German invasion of Russia approached, cooperation between the two countries intensified and German troops began to arrive in Finland.
Following the opening of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the Red Air Force launched concerted air attacks against Finnish cities. This action saw Finland declare war against Russia and allow German troops stationed in Finland to begin offensive action.

Finnish forces on the Eastern Front

During the summer and autumn of 1941, Finnish forces went on the offensive, initially to recapture the territories lost during the Winter War. However, once this goal was completed, the Finnish army continued to advance further, especially in the direction of Lake Onega, leading to the occupation of East Karelia. The German-Finnish troops in Northern Finland were less successful, failing to capture the Russian port city of Murmansk, vital for the shipment of lend lease supplies into the country.
In September 1941, the Finnish army halted its offfensive and occupied defensive positions. This led to a long period of relative calm in the front line, lasting until 1944. During this period, and especially as the fortunes of German forces in Russia deteriorated, intermittent peace negotiations took place. However, despite the negotiations, These negotiations, no settlement was reached.
In June 1944, the Red Army resumed offensive action against Finish forces. Russian forces enjoyed a vast numerical superiority and managed to achieve almost total surprise. These factors led to Finnish forces retreating to approximately the same positions as they had occupied at the end of the Winter War. Eventually the Russian offensive was fought to a standstill well before it reached the main Finnish line of fortifications, the Salpa Line.
Following the resignation of the Finnish president, Risto Ryti, the Parliament elected Mannerheim, the Finnish commander-in-chief, as the new president and charged him with negotiating a peace.
In September 1944 a ceasefire was agreed and the Moscow armistice was signed on September the 19th. The armistice agreement resulted in Finland having to cede parts of Karelia, Salla, Petsamo and islands in the Gulf of Finland. It also obliged Finland to expel German troops from the country. This led to the Lapland War, which saw the Germans adopt a scorched earth policy in the northern half of the country as they retreated with the last German troops leaving Finnish soil in April 1945.

Finnish Force Organization

The army was divided into three Corps, the 2nd and 3rd Corps in the Isthmus creating the Isthmus Army, and the 4th Corps in the Ladoga, Karelia area. The troops in northern Finland were named the North Finland Group and divided into two subgroups, the Lapland Group, defending a front from Petsamo to Salla, and the North Karelia Group defending the front from Kuhmo to near Ilomantsi. Between those two groups were the 15th and 16th separate Battalions.
The Finnish infantry Division consisted of a Divisional HQ, three infantry Regiments, a field artillery Regiment, which consisted of three artillery Battalions, each formed from three artillery Batteries, each equipped with four 75mm kanon M1902 or 84mm kanon M1881 guns, a light Detachment, which was comprised of a bicycle Company, a cavalry Company and a machine gun Platoon, two engineer Companies, a signals Company and a wire laying Company.
The Finish infantry Regiment was comprised of a Regimental HQ, consisting of an AA Platoon, an AT Platoon equipped with four 37mm Bofors M38 guns, a Mortar Platoon equipped with two 80mm M29 mortars and a supply Company. The remainder of the Regiment consisted of three infantry Battalions, which were each comprised of a Battalion HQ, three infantry Companies, a Jager Company and a machine gun Company.
Each infantry Company was comprised of a Company HQ, and three infantry Platoons, each in turn formed from four infantry sections. Support elements within the Company included a heavy weapons Platoon consisting of an MG section equipped with one M14 or M36 machine guns and a mortar section equipped with one 47mm mortar.
The Jager or scout Company consisted of a Company HQ, and four rifle Platoons each formed in turn from four rifle Sections, while the MG Company was consisted of a Company HQ and three machine gun Platoons, each formed in turn from two machine gun Sections, each equipped with two M14 or M36 machine guns.

Equipment

The Fins were equipped with a variety of rifles, the primary weapons being the 7.62mm Mosin Nagant M1981, the 6.5mm Mauser M96, the 6.5mm AG M42 self-loading and the 7.62mm M/27 rifles. The Mosin Nagant and M27 rifles were both 7.62mm in calibre and were fed with five round box magazines, while the M96 and M42 were 6.5mm in calibre and fed with ten round box magazines. The standard machine gun was the 9mm M-31 Suomi. Similar to the PPsh 41, it was fed with either a seventy round drum, or a twenty-five or fifty round box magazine. The primary machine guns, the M14 and M36, were both water-cooled and 6.5mm in calibre. The primary AT gun in service with Finish forces was the 37mm Bofors gun.
The primary infantry guns in use were the 84mm kanon M1881 and the 75mm kanon M1902. Light howitzers were the 105mm M1910 and the 105mm M1940, while the primary heavy guns were the 120mm kanon M1885 and the 105mm kanon M1939.

Spanish Blue Division

Historical Background

Between 1936 and 1939, Germany supported Franco's right-wing Nationalists, against a communist backed, left wing Republic, during three years of brutal civil war.
When Germany invaded communist Russia in June 1941, Franco felt duty bound to repay the support given by the Germans during the civil war. However, it would be difficult to provide substantial support due to the countries shattered economy. Spain also wished to remain neutral to avoid sanctions from Britain. To this end, it was planned to raise a volunteer Corps, which would be employed solely on the Eastern Front, fighting against the Russians.
Volunteers flocked to recruiting offices in all the metropolitan areas of Spain, many of them being veterans of the civil war.

Spanish forces on the Eastern Front

In July 1941, the first train left Madrid for Grafenwohr in Bavaria, where the Division, officially named the 250th Infantry Division, would undergo five weeks of training. The Division was initially divided into four infantry Regiments, but was later reorganized following the standard German model of three Regiments. The three were named after the Spanish cities that volunteers largely originated from, Barcelona, Valencia and Seville.
By early September, the Blue Division had been assigned to Army Group Centre and was ordered to take part in Operation Typhoon, the assault on Moscow. After seeing some action in Vilna, the division was reassigned to Army Group North's 16th Army. The 16th Army held the right flank of Army Group North, from Lake Seliger in the south to Lake Ladoga in the north.
In the middle of October, in the bitter cold of early winter, elements of the Division crossed the Volkhov River at Udarnik. This was the start of a combined offensive with German troops of the 18th and 126th infantry Divisions, intended to complete the encirclement of Leningrad by linking with the Finns to the east of Lake Ladoga. By the evening of the 19th, the Spanish had secured the bridgehead, which they named 'Posición Navarro' in honour of a captain who had died during a Russian artillery barrage two days earlier. Later that month the Division was involved in the capture of several towns along the western bank of the Volkhov, including Tigoda, Smeisko, Sitno and Dubrovka.
At the end of October, the Division was assigned to the 1st Corps, which was deployed between Novgorod and Lake Ilmen. The Division fought well as part of a special task force, which struck eastward between Novgorod and Chudovo. The Division was also involved in a stubborn defensive action at Novgorod and later in the towns of Otenski,Possad and Poselok. Elements of the Division managed to consolidate their positions throughout early December, despite continued Russian attempts to dislodge them.
In February 1942, elements of the Division mounted an operation to relieve remnants of the German 290th Division, which were encircled in the village of Vsad. Following a difficult approach march, in atrocious weather conditions, the force managed to hold back the Russians long enough to allow the garrison to be evacuated.
At the end of March, the Division was involved in heavy fighting on the east bank of the River Volkhov. Eventually the Russians were forced to retreat and a link was made with the 58th Infantry and 4th SS Polizei Divisions, to the north of the pocket.
In late August 1942, the Division took up new positions on the Leningrad front from Puskin to Krasny Bor.
During February 1943, the Russian Leningrad and Volkhov Fronts joined to form a corridor to the south of Lake Ladoga. On the eastern side, the Russians launched an attack on the area from Kolpino to Krasny Bor. The Division was involved in heavy fighting in the area of Poselok, suffering heavy losses. Despite repeated Russian attacks, the Division managed to hold its defensive positions until it was pulled out of the line at the end of the month.
In March 1943, the Russians renewed their efforts to capture the main road and rail link from Leningrad to Moscow and the Spanish sector near the River Ishora and in the town of Krasny Bor were crucial sectors. The attack opened with a three hour artillery bombardment and this was followed by an infantry and armoured attack which broke through the Spanish line and advanced towards Krasny Bor.
Despite this isolated units managed to hold out on the Moscow to Leningrad road and also at Podolovo, repeatedly fighting off Russian attacks. In and around Krasny Bor, the small Spanish pockets of resistance were gradually being overrun and the German 212th Division was forced to support the beleaguered Blue Division.
The Division was ordered redeploy along the Ishora River and to prevent an encirclement of their positions taking place. The Division managed to hold their new positions and the last major attack from the Russians came on the 19th of March, and was again beaten back by the Spanish. Following this, enemy activity died down and the Division was eventually relieved in May, by the German 254th Division.
During the following months, Spain came under increasing pressure from the Allies to withdraw its support for Hitler. Following long negotiations with the German government, elements of the Division began to depart from the eastern front in October 1943. A 'Blue Legion, comprised of 3000 men remained and was attached to the German 121st infantry Division. However even this token force was ordered to withdraw in March 1944.
Many Spaniards chose to remain and Spanish volunteer units served in the 3rd Gebirgs, 121st and 357th infantry Divisions. Other Spanish volunteers formed the 'Spanische-Freiwilligen Kompanie der SS 101' and were attached to the 28th SS Volunteer Grenadier Division Wallonien, fighting in Pomerania. Later, as part of 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland it fought during the last days of the war in Berlin.

Spanish Force Organization

The formation of the Division was similar to a standard German infantry Division. In 1941, when the Division left Grafenwohr for Russia, it consisted of a Divisional HQ, three infantry Regiments, an artillery Regiment, comprised of three light Companies, each formed from three Batteries, each equipped with four 105mm leFH 18 howitzers and one heavy Company formed from two Batteries, each equipped with 150mm Sfh 36 guns, an anti tank Group, which was comprised from three Batteries, each formed from four sections and each equipped with three 37mm Pak 36 anti tank guns, a bicycle mounted reconnaissance Group, a ski Company and an engineer Battalion.
Each infantry Regiment was comprised from three infantry Battalions, each containing, three infantry Companies, one heavy weapons Company, equipped with MG34 machine guns and 81mm mortars, one infantry gun Company, equipped with six, 75mm leIG 18 guns and two 150mm Sig 33 guns, one anti tank Company, equipped with twelve 37mm Pak 36 anti-tank guns and one Company of assault engineers.

Equipment

The Division was fitted out entirely with German weapons and equipment.